Cortex
Volume 45, Issue 5 , Pages 575-591 , May 2009

Phonological dyslexia and dysgraphia: Cognitive mechanisms and neural substrates

  • Steven Z. Rapcsak

      Affiliations

    • Neurology Section, Southern Arizona VA Health Care System, Tucson, AZ, USA
    • Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Neurology Section (1-11M), Southern Arizona VA Health Care System, 3601 South 6th Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85723, USA.
  • ,
  • Pélagie M. Beeson

      Affiliations

    • Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • ,
  • Maya L. Henry

      Affiliations

    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • ,
  • Anne Leyden

      Affiliations

    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • ,
  • Esther Kim

      Affiliations

    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • ,
  • Kindle Rising

      Affiliations

    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • ,
  • Sarah Andersen

      Affiliations

    • Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
  • ,
  • HyeSuk Cho

      Affiliations

    • Department of Speech, Language, & Hearing Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Received 27 November 2007 ,Revised 8 April 2008 ,Accepted 9 April 2008.

References 

  1. Alexander MP, Friedman RB, Loverso F, Fischer RS. Lesion localization in phonological agraphia. Brain and Language. 1992;43:83–95
  2. Allport DA, Funnell E. Components of the mental lexicon. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1981;B295:397–410
  3. Baayen RH, Piepenbrock R, van Rijn H. The CELEX Lexical Database. Philadelphia, PA: Linguistic Data Consortium, University of Pennsylvania; 1995;
  4. Baddeley A. Double dissociation: not magic but still useful. Cortex. 2003;39:129–131
  5. Bates E, Wilson SM, Saygin AP, Dick F, Sereno MI, Knight RT, et al. Voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping. Nature Neuroscience. 2003;6:448–450
  6. Bayles KA, Kaszniak AW. Communication and Cognition in Normal Aging and Dementia. London: Taylor & Francis; 1987;
  7. Beauvois MF, Dérouesné J. Phonological alexia: three dissociations. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1979;42:1115–1124
  8. Beeson PM, Rapcsak SZ. The neural substrates of sublexical spelling. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 2003;9:304
  9. Beeson PM, Rapcsak SZ, Plante E, Chargualaf J, Chung A, Johnson SC, et al. The neural substrates of writing: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Aphasiology. 2003;17:647–665
  10. Behrmann M, Bub D. Surface dyslexia and dysgraphia: dual routes, single lexicon. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1992;9:209–251
  11. Berndt RS, Haendiges AN, Mitchum CC, Wayland SC. An investigation of nonlexical reading impairments. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1996;13:763–801
  12. Binder J, Price CJ. Functional neuroimaging of language. In:  Cabeza R,  Kingstone A editor. Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2001;p. 187–251
  13. Bisiacchi PS, Cipolotti L, Denes G. Impairments in processing meaningless verbal material in several modalities: the relationship between short-term memory and phonological skills. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1989;41A:293–319
  14. Blumstein SE. Deficits of speech production and speech perception in aphasia. In:  Berndt RS editors. Language and Aphasia. 2nd ed..  Boller F,  Grafman J editor. Handbook of Neuropsychology. vol. 3:Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2001;p. 95–113
  15. Boatman D. Cortical bases of speech perception: evidence from functional lesion studies. Cognition. 2004;92:47–65
  16. Bogousslavsky J, Caplan LR. Stroke Syndromes. 2nd ed.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2001;
  17. Bosman AMT, Van Orden GC. Why spelling is more difficult than reading. In:  Perfetti CA,  Rieben L,  Fayol M editor. Learning to Spell: Research, Theory, and Practice Across Languages. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1997;p. 173–191
  18. Braak H, Braak E. The evolution of the neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, Supplement. 1996;165:3–12
  19. Brett M, Leff AP, Rorden C, Ashburner J. Spatial normalization of brain images with focal lesions using cost function masking. Neuroimage. 2001;14:486–500
  20. Bub D, Kertesz A. Deep agraphia. Brain and Language. 1982;17:146–165
  21. Burton MW, Small SL. Models of speech processing. In:  Hillis AE editors. Handbook of Adult Language Disorders: Integrating Cognitive Neuropsychology, Neurology, and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia: Psychology Press; 2002;p. 253–267
  22. Buxbaum LJ, Coslett HB. Deep dyslexic phenomena in a letter-by-letter reader. Brain and Language. 1996;54:136–167
  23. Caccappolo-van Vliet E, Miozzo M, Stern Y. Phonological dyslexia without phonological impairment?. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 2004;21:820–839
  24. Caccappolo-van Vliet E, Miozzo M, Stern Y. Phonological dyslexia. A test case for reading models. Psychological Science. 2004;15:583–590
  25. Coltheart M. The MRC Psycholinguistic Database. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1981;33A:487–505
  26. Coltheart M. Phonological dyslexia: past and future issues. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1996;13:749–762
  27. Coltheart M. Acquired dyslexias and the computational modeling of reading. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 2006;23:96–109
  28. Coltheart M, Funnell E. Reading and writing: One lexicon or two?. In:  Allport DA,  MacKay DG,  Prinz W,  Scheerer E editor. Language Perception and Production: Shared Mechanisms in Listening, Reading, and Writing. London: Academic Press; 1987;p. 313–339
  29. In:  Coltheart M,  Patterson K,  Marshall JC editor. Deep Dyslexia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; 1980;
  30. Coltheart M, Rastle K, Perry C, Langdon R, Ziegler J. DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review. 2001;108:204–256
  31. Cortese MJ, Fugett A. Imageability ratings for 3,000 monosyllabic words. Behavior Research Methods Instruments & Computers. 2004;36:384–387
  32. Crisp J, Lambon Ralph MA. Unlocking the nature of the phonological-deep dyslexia continuum: the keys to reading aloud are in phonology and semantics. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2006;18:348–362
  33. Damasio H. Human Brain Anatomy in Computerized Images. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995;
  34. Damasio H, Damasio AR. Lesion Analysis in Neuropsychology. New York: Oxford University Press; 1989;
  35. Dérouesné J, Beauvois MF. Phonological processing in reading: data from alexia. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1979;42:1125–1132
  36. Dérouesné J, Beauvois MF. The phonemic stage in the non-lexical reading process: evidence from a case of phonological alexia. In:  Patterson KE,  Marshall JC,  Coltheart M editor. Surface Dyslexia: Neuropsychological and Cognitive Studies of Phonological Reading. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1985;p. 399–457
  37. Duffy JR. Motor Speech Disorders. 2nd ed.. St. Louis: Elsevier Mosby; 2005;
  38. Dunn JC, Kirsner K. What can we infer from double dissociations?. Cortex. 2003;39:1–7
  39. Ellis AW. Spelling and writing (and reading and speaking). In:  Ellis AW editors. Normality and Pathology in Cognitive Functions. London: Academic Press; 1982;p. 113–146
  40. Ellis AW, Young AW. Human Cognitive Neuropsychology. Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1988;
  41. Farah MJ, Stowe RM, Levinson KL. Phonological dyslexia: loss of a reading-specific component of the cognitive architecture?. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1996;13:849–868
  42. Fiez JA, Petersen SE. Neuroimaging studies of word reading. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998;95:914–921
  43. Fiez JA, Tranel D, Seager-Frerichs D, Damasio H. Specific reading and phonological processing deficits are associated with damage to the left frontal operculum. Cortex. 2006;42:624–643
  44. Friedman RB. Two types of phonological alexia. Cortex. 1995;31:397–403
  45. Friedman RB. Phonological text alexia: poor pseudoword reading plus difficulty reading functors and affixes in text. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1996;13:869–885
  46. Friedman RB. Recovery from deep alexia to phonological alexia: points on a continuum. Brain and Language. 1996;52:114–128
  47. Friedman RB, Hadley JA. Letter-by-letter surface alexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1992;9:185–208
  48. Friedman RB, Beeman M, Lott SN, Link K, Grafman J, Robinson S. Modality-specific phonological alexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1993;10:549–568
  49. Glosser G, Friedman RB. The continuum of deep/phonological alexia. Cortex. 1990;26:343–359
  50. Graham NL, Patterson K, Hodges JR. The impact of semantic memory impairment on spelling: evidence from semantic dementia. Neuropsychologia. 2000;38:143–163
  51. Harm MW, Seidenberg MS. Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: insights from connectionist models. Psychological Review. 1999;106:491–528
  52. Harm MW, Seidenberg MS. Are there orthographic impairments in phonological dyslexia?. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 2001;18:71–92
  53. Henry ML, Beeson PM, Stark AJ, Rapcsak SZ. The role of left perisylvian cortical regions in spelling. Brain and Language. 2007;100:44–52
  54. Hickok G, Poeppel D. Toward a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2000;4:131–138
  55. Hickok G, Poeppel D. Dorsal and ventral streams: a framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language. Cognition. 2004;92:67–99
  56. Hillis AE, Work M, Barker PB, Jacobs MA, Breese EL, Maurer K. Re-examining the brain regions crucial for orchestrating speech articulation. Brain. 2004;127:1479–1487
  57. Holmes VM, Carruthers J. The relation between reading and spelling in skilled adult readers. Journal of Memory and Language. 1998;39:264–289
  58. Indefrey P, Levelt WJM. The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition. 2004;92:101–144
  59. Jefferies E, Sage K, Lambon Ralph MA. Do deep dyslexia, dysphasia and dysgraphia share a common phonological impairment?. Neuropsychologia. 2007;45:1553–1570
  60. Jobard G, Crivello F, Tzourio-Mazoyer . Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage. 2003;20:693–712
  61. Juola R, Plunkett K. Why double dissociations don't mean much. In:  Cohen G,  Johnston RA,  Plunkett K editor. Exploring Cognition: Damaged Brains and Neural Networks. Readings in Cognitive and Connectionist Modelling. Hove, UK: Psychology Press; 2000;p. 319–327
  62. Kay J, Lesser R, Coltheart M. Psycholinguistic Assessments of Language Processing in Aphasia (PALPA). East Sussex, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1992;
  63. Kertesz A. Western Aphasia Battery. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1982;
  64. Kessler B, Treiman R. Relationship between sounds and letters in English monosyllables. Journal of Memory and Language. 2001;44:592–617
  65. Kimberg DY, Coslett HB, Schwartz MF. Power in voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2007;19:1067–1080
  66. Lambon Ralph MA, Graham NL. Previous cases: acquired phonological and deep dyslexia. Neurocase. 2000;6:141–178
  67. Levelt WJM, Wheeldon L. Do speakers have access to a mental syllabary?. Cognition. 1994;50:239–269
  68. Levelt WJM, Roelofs A, Meyer AS. A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1999;22:1–75
  69. Marien P, Pickut BA, Engelborghs S, Martin J-J, De Deyn PP. Phonological agraphia following a focal anterior insulo-opercular infarction. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39:845–855
  70. Mechelli A, Gorno-Tempini ML, Price CJ. Neuroimaging studies of word and pseudoword reading: consistencies, inconsistencies, and limitations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2003;15:260–271
  71. Mechelli A, Crinion JT, Long S, Friston KJ, Lambon Ralph MA, Patterson K, et al. Dissociating reading processes on the basis of neuronal interactions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2005;17:1753–1765
  72. Nadeau SE. Phonology. In:  Nadeau SE,  Gonzalez Rothi LJ,  Crosson B editor. Aphasia and Language: Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford Press; 2000;p. 40–81
  73. Norton ES, Kovelman I, Petitto L-A. Are there separate neural systems for spelling? New insights into the role of rules and memory in spelling from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Mind, Brain, and Education. 2007;1:48–59
  74. Omura K, Tsukamoto T, Kotani Y, Ohgami Y, Yoshikawa K. Neural correlates of phoneme–grapheme conversion. Neuroreport. 2004;15:949–953
  75. Patterson K. Phonological alexia: the case of the singing detective. In:  Funnell E editors. Case Studies in the Neuropsychology of Reading. Hove, UK: Psychology Press; 2000;p. 57–83
  76. Patterson K, Shewell C. Speak and spell: dissociations and word-class effects. In:  Coltheart M,  Sartori G,  Job R editor. The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Language. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1987;p. 273–294
  77. Patterson K, Lambon Ralph MA. Selective disorders of reading?. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 1999;9:235–239
  78. Patterson K, Marcel A. Phonological ALEXIA or PHONOLOGICAL Alexia?. In:  Alegria J,  Holender D,  Junca de Morais J,  Radeau M editor. Analytic Approaches to Human Cognition. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science; 1992;p. 259–274
  79. Patterson K, Suzuki T, Wydell TN. Interpreting a case of Japanese phonological alexia: the key is in phonology. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1996;13:803–822
  80. Plaut DC. Interpreting double dissociations in connectionist networks. Cortex. 2003;39:138–141
  81. Plaut DC, McClelland JL, Seidenberg MS, Patterson K. Understanding normal and impaired word reading: computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review. 1996;103:56–115
  82. Price CJ, Friston K. Degeneracy and cognitive anatomy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2002;6:416–421
  83. Price CJ, Mechelli A. Reading and reading disturbance. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2005;15:231–238
  84. Price CJ, Gorno-Tempini ML, Graham KS, Biggio N, Mechelli A, Patterson K, et al. Normal and pathological reading: converging data from lesion and imaging studies. Neuroimage. 2003;20:S30–S41
  85. Rapcsak SZ, Gonzalez Rothi LJ, Heilman KM. Phonological alexia with optic and tactile anomia: a neuropsychological and anatomical study. Brain and Language. 1987;31:109–121
  86. Rapcsak SZ, Beeson PM. Agraphia. In:  Nadeau SE,  Gonzalez Rothi LJ,  Crosson B editor. Aphasia and Language: Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford Press; 2000;p. 184–220
  87. Rapcsak SZ, Beeson PM. Neuroanatomical correlates of spelling and writing. In:  Hillis AE editors. Handbook of Adult Language Disorders: Integrating Cognitive Neuropsychology, Neurology, and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia: Psychology Press; 2002;p. 71–99
  88. Rapcsak SZ, Beeson PM. The role of left posterior inferior temporal cortex in spelling. Neurology. 2004;62:2221–2229
  89. Rapcsak SZ, Beeson PM, Rubens AB. Writing with the right hemisphere. Brain and Language. 1991;41:510–530
  90. Rapcsak SZ, Henry ML, Teague SL, Carnahan SD, Beeson PM. Do dual-route models accurately predict reading and spelling performance in individuals with acquired alexia and agraphia?. Neuropsychologia. 2007;45:2519–2524
  91. Roeltgen DP, Heilman KM. Lexical agraphia: further support for the two-system hypothesis of linguistic agraphia. Brain. 1984;107:811–827
  92. Roeltgen DP, Sevush S, Heilman KM. Phonological agraphia: writing by the lexical–semantic route. Neurology. 1983;33:755–765
  93. Rorden C, Brett M. Stereotaxic display of brain lesions. Behavioral Neurology. 2000;12:191–200
  94. Rorden C, Karnath H-O, Bonilha L. Improving lesion-symptom mapping. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2007;19:1081–1088
  95. Sasanuma S, Ito H, Patterson K, Ito T. Phonological alexia in Japanese: a case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 1996;13:823–848
  96. Scott KS, Wise RJS. The functional neuroanatomy of prelexical processing in speech perception. Cognition. 2004;92:13–45
  97. Shallice T. Phonological agraphia and the lexical route in writing. Brain. 1981;104:413–429
  98. Shallice T. From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1988;
  99. Tainturier M-J, Rapp B. The spelling process. In:  Rapp B editors. The Handbook of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal about the Human Mind. Philadelphia: Psychology Press; 2001;p. 263–289
  100. Thompson PM, Hayashi KM, de Zubicaray G, Janke AL, Rose SE, Semple J, et al. Dynamics of gray matter loss in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuroscience. 2003;23:994–1005
  101. Tree JJ, Kay J. Phonological dyslexia and phonological impairment: an exception to the rule?. Neuropsychologia. 2006;44:2861–2873
  102. Vigneau M, Beaucousin V, Hervé PY, Duffau H, Crivello F, Houdé O, et al. Meta-analyzing left hemisphere language areas: phonology, semantics, and sentence processing. Neuroimage. 2006;30:1414–1432
  103. Welbourne SR, Lambon Ralph MA. Using parallel distributed processing models to simulate phonological dyslexia: the key role of plasticity-related recovery. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2007;19:1125–1139
  104. Whiteside SP, Varley RA. A reconceptualization of apraxia of speech: a synthesis of evidence. Cortex. 1998;34:221–231

PII: S0010-9452(08)00133-0

doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2008.04.006

Cortex
Volume 45, Issue 5 , Pages 575-591 , May 2009