Cortex
Volume 44, Issue 8 , Pages 1037-1066 , September 2008

Disconnection syndromes of basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebrocerebellar systems

  • Jeremy D. Schmahmann

      Affiliations

    • Ataxia Unit, Cognitive/Behavioral Neurology Unit, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Suite 340, Charles River Plaza South, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
  • ,
  • Deepak N. Pandya

      Affiliations

    • Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA

Received 24 January 2008 ,Revised 13 April 2008 ,Accepted 14 April 2008.

References 

  1. Acuña C, Cudeiro J, Gonzalez F, Alonso JM, Perez R. Lateral–posterior and pulvinar reaching cells – comparison with parietal area 5a: a study in behaving Macaca nemestrina monkeys. Experimental Brain Research. 1990;82:158–166
  2. Albert ML, Feldman RG, Willis AL. The ‘subcortical dementia’ of progressive supranuclear palsy. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1974;37:121–130
  3. Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review Neuroscience. 1986;9:357–381
  4. Allen GI, Tsukahara N. Cerebrocerebellar communication systems. Physiological Reviews. 1974;54:957–1006
  5. Allin M, Matsumoto H, Santhouse AM, et al. Cognitive and motor function and the size of the cerebellum in adolescents born very pre-term. Brain. 2001;124:60–66
  6. Ariëns-Kappers CU, Huber GC, Crosby EC. The Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System of Vertebrates, including Man. New York: Macmillan Publishing; 1936;
  7. Asanuma C, Andersen RA, Cowan WM. The thalamic relations of the caudal inferior parietal lobule and the lateral prefrontal cortex in monkeys: divergent cortical projections from cell clusters in the medial pulvinar nucleus. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1985;241:357–381
  8. Barbas H. Specialized elements of orbitofrontal cortex in primates. Annals of the New York Academy of Science. 2007;1121:10–32
  9. Barbas H, Henion TH, Dermon CR. Diverse thalamic projections to the prefrontal cortex in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1991;313:65–94
  10. Barker LF. The Nervous System and Its Constituent Neurones. New York: D. Appleton and Co.; 1899;
  11. Barnes TD, Kubota Y, Hu D, Jin DZ, Graybiel AM. Activity of striatal neurons reflects dynamic encoding and recoding of procedural memories. Nature. 2005;437:1158–1161
  12. Barto AG, Fagg AH, Sitkoff N, Houk JC. A cerebellar model of timing and prediction in the control of reaching. Neural computation. 1999;11:565–594
  13. Basser PJ, Mattiello J, LeBihan D. MR diffusion tensor spectroscopy and imaging. Biophysical Journal. 1994;66:259–267
  14. Beck PD, Kaas JH. Thalamic connections of the dorsomedial visual area in primates. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1998;396:381–398
  15. Behrens TE, Johansen-Berg H, Woolrich MW, et al. Non-invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using diffusion imaging. Nature Neuroscience. 2003;6:750–757
  16. Bentivoglio M, Kultas-Ilinsky K, Ilinsky I. Limbic thalamus: Structure, intrinsic organization, and connections. In:  Vogt BA,  Gabriel M editor. Neurobiology of Cingulate Cortex and Limbic Thalamus. Boston: Birkhäuser; 1993;p. 71–122
  17. Bhatia KP, Marsden CD. The behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man. Brain. 1994;117:859–876
  18. Bloedel JR. Task-dependent role of the cerebellum in motor learning. Progress in Brain Research. 2004;143:319–329
  19. Bogousslavsky J, Regli F, Assal G. The syndrome of unilateral tuberothalamic artery territory infarction. Stroke. 1986;17:434–441
  20. Bogousslavsky J, Regli F, Delaloye B, Delaloye-Bischof A, Assal G, Uske A. Loss of psychic self-activation with bithalamic infarction: neurobehavioural, CT, MRI and SPECT correlates. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 1991;83:309–316
  21. Bogousslavsky J, Regli F, Uske A. Thalamic infarcts: clinical syndromes, etiology, and prognosis. Neurology. 1988;38:837–848
  22. Bower JM. Control of sensory data acquisition. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;41:489–513
  23. Breiter HC, Rauch SL. Functional MRI and the study of OCD: from symptom provocation to cognitive–behavioral probes of cortico-striatal systems and the amygdala. Neuroimage. 1996;4:S127–S138
  24. Brodal A. Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine. 3rd ed.. New York: Oxford University Press; 1981;
  25. Brodal P. The corticopontine projection in the rhesus monkey. Origin and principles of organization. Brain. 1978;101:251–283
  26. Caplan LR, DeWitt LD, Pessin MS, Gorelick PB, Adelman LS. Lateral thalamic infarcts. Archives of Neurology. 1988;45:959–964
  27. Caplan LR, Schmahmann JD, Kase CS, et al. Caudate infarcts. Archives of Neurology. 1990;47:133–143
  28. Castaigne P, Lhermitte F, Buge A, Escourolle R, Hauw JJ, Lyon-Caen O. Paramedian thalamic and midbrain infarct: clinical and neuropathological study. Annals of Neurology. 1981;10:127–148
  29. Castaldo J, Rodgers J, Rae-Grant A, Barbour P, Jenny D. Diagnosis and neuroimaging of acute stroke producing distal arm monoparesis. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovasular Diseases. 2003;12:253–258
  30. Catani M, Mesulam M. What is a disconnection syndrome?. Cortex. 2008;44:911–913
  31. Catani M, Mesulam M. The arcuate fasciculus and the disconnection theme in language and aphasia: history and current state. Cortex. 2008;44:953–961
  32. Catani M, Thiebaut de Schotten M. A diffusion tensor imaging tractography atlas for virtual in vivo dissections. Cortex. 2008;44:1105–1132
  33. Catani M, Howard RJ, Pajevic S, Jones DK. Virtual in vivo interactive dissection of white matter fasciculi in the human brain. NeuroImage. 2002;17:77–94
  34. Chheda M, Sherman J, Schmahmann JD. Neurologic, psychiatric and cognitive manifestations in cerebellar agenesis. Neurology. 2002;58:356
  35. Chukwudelunzu FE, Meschia JF, Graff-Radford NR, Lucas JA. Extensive metabolic and neuropsychological abnormalities associated with discrete infarction of the genu of the internal capsule. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2001;71:658–662
  36. Ciesielski KT, Harris RJ, Hart BL, Pabst HF. Cerebellar hypoplasia and frontal lobe cognitive deficits in disorders of early childhood. Neuropsychologia. 1997;35:643–655
  37. Clarke S, Assal G, Bogousslavsky J, et al. Pure amnesia after unilateral left polar thalamic infarct: topographic and sequential neuropsychological and metabolic (PET) correlations. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1994;57:27–34
  38. Conturo TE, Lori NF, Cull TS, et al. Tracking neuronal fiber pathways in the living human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1999;96:10422–10427
  39. Courchesne E, Allen G. Prediction and preparation, fundamental functions of the cerebellum. Learning and Memory. 1997;4:1–35
  40. Cowey A, Stoerig P, Bannister M. Retinal ganglion cells labelled from the pulvinar nucleus in macaque monkeys. Neuroscience. 1994;61:691–705
  41. Cronin-Golomb A, Corkin S, Growdon JH. Impaired problem solving in Parkinson's disease: impact of a set-shifting deficit. Neuropsychologia. 1994;32:579–593
  42. Crosby EC, Humphrey T, Lauer EW. Correlative Anatomy of the Nervous System. New York: Macmillan; 1962;
  43. Cummings JL, Benson DF. Subcortical dementia. Review of an emerging concept. Archives of Neurology. 1984;41:874–879
  44. Cusick CG, Scripter JL, Darensbourg JG, Weber JT. Chemoarchitectonic subdivisions of the visual pulvinar in monkeys and their connectional relations with the middle temporal and rostral dorsolateral visual areas, MT and DLr. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1993;336:1–30
  45. De Freitas GR, Bogousslavsky J. Thalamic infarcts. In:  Donnan G,  Norving B,  Bamford J,  Bogousslabsky J editor. Subcortical Stroke. Oxford University Press; 2002;p. 255–285
  46. Deecke L, Schwarz DW, Fredrickson JM. Vestibular responses in the rhesus monkey ventroposterior thalamus, II: vestibuloproprioceptive convergence at thalamic neurons. Experimental Brain Research. 1977;30:219–232
  47. Dejerine J, Roussy G. Le syndrome thalamique. Revue Neurologique (Paris). 1906;14:521–532
  48. Delgado MR. Reward-related responses in the human striatum. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2007;1104:70–88
  49. Devinsky O, Luciano D. The contributions of cingulate cortex to human behavior. In:  Vogt BA,  Gabriel M editor. Neurobiology of Cingulate Cortex and Limbic Thalamus. Boston: Birkhäuser; 1997;p. 527–556
  50. Di Martino A, Scheres A, Margulies DS, et al. Functional Connectivity of Human Striatum: a Resting State fMRI Study. Cerebral Cortex. April 9, 2008;[Epub ahead of print]
  51. Dow RS. Some novel concepts of cerebellar physiology. The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, New York. 1974;41:103–119
  52. Dujardin K, Sockeel P, Devos D, et al. Characteristics of apathy in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders. 2007;22:778–784
  53. Duncan GW, Parker SW, Fisher CM. Acute cerebellar infarction in the PICA territory. Archives of Neurology. 1975;32:364–368
  54. Engelborghs S, Marien P, Pickut BA, Verstraeten S, De Deyn PP. Loss of psychic self-activation after paramedian bithalamic infarction. Stroke. 2000;31:1762–1765
  55. Everitt BJ, Parkinson JA, Olmstead MC, Arroyo M, Robledo P, Robbins TW. Associative processes in addiction and reward. The role of amygdala–ventral striatal subsystems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1999;877:412–438
  56. Exner C, Weniger G, Irle E. Cerebellar lesions in the PICA but not SCA territory impair cognition. Neurology. 2004;63:2132–2135
  57. Fair DA, Dosenbach NU, Church JA, et al. Development of distinct control networks through segregation and integration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2007;104:13507–13512
  58. Filley CM. The Behavioral Neurology of White Matter. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001;
  59. Fisher CM. The pathologic and clinical aspects of thalamic hemorrhage. Transactions of the American Neurological Association. 1959;33:56–59
  60. Fisher CM. Thalamic pure sensory stroke: a pathologic study. Neurology. 1978;28:1141–1144
  61. Foix C, Hillemand P. Les arte`res de l'axe ence´phalique jusqu'au dience ´phale inclusivement. Revue Neurologique (Paris). 1925;2:705–739
  62. Francois C, Tande D, Yelnik J, Hirsch EC. Distribution and morphology of nigral axons projecting to the thalamus in primates. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 2002;447:249–260
  63. Garcin R, Lapresle J. Syndrome sensitif de type thalamique et a topographie chéiro-orale par lésion localisée du thalamus. Revue Neurologique (Paris). 1954;90:124–129
  64. Garcin R. Syndrome ce´re´bello-thalamique par le´sion localise´e duthalamus avec une digression sur le “signe de la main creuse” et son inte´reˆt se´me´iologique. (Jubile´ du Docteur Andre´–Thomas). Revue Neurologique (Paris). 1955;93:143–149
  65. Geschwind N. Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. I. Brain. 1965;88:237–294
  66. Geschwind N. Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. II. Brain. 1965;88:585–644
  67. Ghika J, Ghika-Schmid F, Fankhauser H, et al. Bilateral contemporaneous posteroventral pallidotomy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease: neuropsychological and neurological side effects. Report of four cases and review of the literature. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1999;91:313–321
  68. Ghika-Schmid F, Bogousslavsky J. The acute behavioral syndrome of anterior thalamic infarction: a prospective study of 12 cases. Annals of Neurology. 2000;48:220–227
  69. Giguere M, Goldman-Rakic PS. Mediodorsal nucleus: areal, laminar, and tangential distribution of afferents and efferents in the frontal lobe of rhesus monkeys. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1988;277:195–213
  70. Glickstein M, May JG, Mercier BE. Corticopontine projection in the macaque: the distribution of labelled cortical cells after large injections of horseradish peroxidase in the pontine nuclei. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1985;235:343–359
  71. Goldman-Rakic PS. Topography of cognition: parallel distributed networks in primate association cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience. 1988;11:137–156
  72. Goldman-Rakic PS, Porrino LJ. The primate mediodorsal (MD) nucleus and its projection to the frontal lobe. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1985;242:535–560
  73. Graff-Radford NR, Damasio H, Yamada T, Eslinger PJ, Damasio AR. Nonhaemorrhagic thalamic infarction: clinical, neuropsychological and electrophysiological findings in four anatomical groups defined by computerized tomography. Brain. 1985;108:485–516
  74. Graff-Radford NR, Eslinger PJ, Damasio AR, Yamada T. Nonhemorrhagic infarction of the thalamus: behavioral, anatomic, and physiologic correlates. Neurology. 1984;34:14–23
  75. Graff-Radford NR, Tranel D, Van Hoesen GW, Brandt JP. Diencephalic amnesia. Brain. 1990;113:1–25
  76. Graybiel AM. The basal ganglia and chunking of action repertoires. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 1998;70:119–136
  77. Greicius MD, Flores BH, Menon V, et al. Resting-state functional connectivity in major depression: abnormally increased contributions from subgenual cingulate cortex and thalamus. Biological Psychiatry. 2007;62:429–437
  78. Greicius MD, Krasnow B, Reiss AL, Menon V. Functional connectivity in the resting brain: a network analysis of the default mode hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2003;100:253–258
  79. Greicius MD, Supekar K, Menon V, Dougherty RF. Resting-state functional connectivity reflects structural connectivity in the default mode network. Cerebral Cortex. April 9, 2008;[Epub ahead of print]
  80. Grodd W, Hülsmann E, Lotze M, Wildgruber D, Erb M. Sensorimotor mapping of the human cerebellum: fMRI evidence of somatotopic organization. Human Brain Mapping. 2001;13:55–73
  81. Growdon JH, Corkin S. Cognitive impairments in Parkinson's disease. Advances in Neurology. 1987;45:383–392
  82. Guard O, Bellis F, Mabille JP, Dumas R, Boisson D, Devic M. Demence thalamique apres lesion hemorragique unilaterale du pulvinar droit. Revue Neurologique (Paris). 1986;142:759–765
  83. Guberman A, Stuss D. The syndrome of bilateral paramedian thalamic infarction. Neurology. 1983;33:540–546
  84. Gutrecht JA, Zamani AA, Pandya DN. Lacunar thalamic stroke with pure cerebellar and proprioceptive deficits. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1992;55:854–856
  85. Haber SN, Fudge JL, McFarland NR. Striatonigrostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from the shell to the dorsolateral striatum. Journal of Neuroscience. 2000;20:2369–2382
  86. Hackett TA, Stepniewska I, Kaas JH. Thalamocortical connections of the parabelt auditory cortex in macaque monkeys. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1998;400:271–286
  87. Haines DE, Dietrichs E, Mihailoff GA, McDonald EF. The cerebellar–hypothalamic axis: basic circuits and clinical observations. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;41:83–107
  88. Hama S, Yamashita H, Shigenobu M, et al. Post-stroke affective or apathetic depression and lesion location: left frontal lobe and bilateral basal ganglia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2007;257:149–152
  89. van Harskamp NJ, Rudge P, Cipolotti L. Cognitive and social impairments in patients with superficial siderosis. Brain. 2005;128:1082–1092
  90. Victor M, Adams RD, Collins GH. The Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome: a clinical and pathological study of 245 patients, 82 with post-mortem examinations. Contemporary Neurology Series. 1971;7:1–206
  91. Hartmann-von Monakow K, Akert K, Künzle H. Projection of precentral, premotor and prefrontal cortex to the basilar pontine grey and to nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis in the monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie. Neurochirurgie und Psychiatrie. 1981;129:189–208
  92. Heath RG. Modulation of emotion with a brain pacemaker. Treatment for intractable psychiatric illness. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. 1977;165:300–317
  93. Hodges JR, McCarthy RA. Autobiographical amnesia resulting from bilateral paramedian thalamic infarction: a case study in cognitive neurobiology. Brain. 1993;116:921–940
  94. Holmes G. The symptoms of acute cerebellar injuries due to gunshot wounds. Brain. 1917;40:461–535
  95. Holt DJ, Graybiel AM, Saper CB. Neurochemical architecture of the human striatum. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1997;384:1–25
  96. Hugdahl K, Wester K. Neurocognitive correlates of stereotactic thalamotomy and thalamic stimulation in parkinsonian patients. Brain and Cognition. 2000;42:231–252
  97. Huguenard JR, Prince DA. Basic mechanisms of epileptic discharges in the thalamus. In:  Steriade M,  Jones EG,  McCormick DA editor. Thalamus. Experimental and Clinical Aspects. vol. II:New York: Elsevier; 1997;p. 295–330
  98. Ilinsky IA, Kultas-Ilinsky K. Sagittal cytoarchitectonic maps of the Macaca mulatta thalamus with a revised nomenclature of the motorrelated nuclei validated by observations on their connectivity. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1987;262:331–364
  99. Ito M. The Cerebellum and Neural Control. New York: Raven Press; 1984;
  100. Ito M. Bases and implications of learning in the cerebellum – adaptive control and internal model mechanism. Progress in Brain Research. 2005;148:95–109
  101. Ivry R. Cerebellar timing systems. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;41:555–573
  102. Johansen-Berg H, Behrens TE, Sillery E, et al. Functional–anatomical validation and individual variation of diffusion tractography-based segmentation of the human thalamus. Cerebral Cortex. 2005;15:31–39
  103. Johnson MD, Ojemann GA. The role of the human thalamus in language and memory: evidence from electrophysiological studies. Brain and Cognition. 2000;42:218–230
  104. Jones EG. The Thalamus. New York: Plenum Press; 1985;p. 378–396
  105. Jones EG. A description of the human thalamus. In:  Steriade M,  Jones EG,  McCormick DA editor. Thalamus. Experimental and Clinical Aspects. vol. II:New York: Elsevier; 1997;p. 425–499
  106. Jones EG, Powell TP. Connexions of the somatic sensory cortex of the rhesus monkey, 3: thalamic connexions. Brain. 1970;93:37–56
  107. Jones EG, Powell TP. An anatomical study of converging sensory pathways within the cerebral cortex of the monkey. Brain. 1970;93:793–820
  108. Karnath HO, Himmelbach M, Rorden C. The subcortical anatomy of human spatial neglect: putamen, caudate nucleus and pulvinar. Brain. 2002;125:350–360
  109. Karten HJ. Evolutionary developmental biology meets the brain: the origins of mammalian cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94:2800–2804
  110. Kelly RM, Strick PL. Cerebellar loops with motor cortex and prefrontal cortex of a nonhuman primate. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2003;23:8432–8444
  111. Kennedy H, Bullier J. A double-labeling investigation of the afferent connectivity to cortical areas V1 and V2 of the macaque monkey. The Journal of Neuroscience. 1985;5:2815–2830
  112. Kievit J, Kuypers HGJM. Organization of the thalamocortical connections to the frontal lobe in the rhesus monkey. Experimental Brain Research. 1977;29:299–322
  113. Kumral E, Evyapan D, Balkir K. Acute caudate vascular lesions. Stroke. 1999;30:100–108
  114. Künzle H, Akert K. Efferent connections of cortical area 8 (frontal eye lid) in Macaca fascicularis: a reinvestigation using the autoradiographic technique. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1977;173:147–164
  115. Lapresle J, Haguenau M. Anatomico–clinical correlation in focal thalamic lesions. Zeitschrift für Neurologie. 1973;205:29–46
  116. Lee H, Sohn SI, Cho YW, Lee SR, Ahn BH, Park BR, et al. Cerebellar infarction presenting isolated vertigo: frequency and vascular topographical patterns. Neurology. 2006;67:1178–1183
  117. Leggio MG, Neri P, Graziano A, Mandolesi L, Molinari M, Petrosini L. Cerebellar contribution to spatial event processing: characterization of procedural learning. Experimental Brain Research. 1999;127:1–11
  118. Leggio MG, Silveri MC, Petrosini L, Molinari M. Phonological grouping is specifically affected in cerebellar patients: a verbal fluency study. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2000;69:102–106
  119. Leh SE, Ptito A, Chakravarty MM, Strafella AP. Fronto-striatal connections in the human brain: a probabilistic diffusion tractography study. Neuroscience Letters. 2007;419:113–118
  120. Lehéricy S, Ducros M, Krainik A, et al. 3-D diffusion tensor axonal tracking shows distinct SMA and pre-SMA projections to the human striatum. Cerebral Cortex. 2004;14:1302–1309
  121. Lehéricy S, Grand S, Pollak P, et al. Clinical characteristics and topography of lesions in movement disorders due to thalamic lesions. Neurology. 2001;57:1055–1066
  122. Leigh RJ, Zee DS. The Neurology of Eye Movements. Philadelphia: FA Davis; 1983;
  123. Leiner HC, Leiner AL, Dow RS. Does the cerebellum contribute to mental skills?. Behavioral Neuroscience. 1986;100:443–454
  124. Lenz FA, Dougherty PM. Pain processing in the human thalamus. In:  Steriade M,  Jones EG,  McCormick DA editor. Thalamus. Experimental and Clinical Aspects. vol. II:New York: Elsevier; 1997;p. 617–651
  125. Levisohn L, Cronin-Golomb A, Schmahmann JD. Neuropsychological consequences of cerebellar tumor resection in children: cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome in a pediatric population. Brain. 2000;123:1041–1050
  126. Levy R, Dubois B. Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex–basal ganglia circuits. Cerebral Cortex. 2006;16:916–928
  127. Limperopoulos C, Robertson RL, Estroff JA, et al. Diagnosis of inferior vermian hypoplasia by fetal magnetic resonance imaging: potential pitfalls and neurodevelopmental outcome. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2006;194:1070–1076
  128. Lisovoski F, Koskas P, Dubard T, Dessarts I, Dehen H, Cambier J. Left tuberothalamic artery territory infarction: neuropsychological and MRI features. European Neurology. 1993;33:181–184
  129. Llinas R, Ribary U. Consciousness and the brain: the thalamocortical dialogue in health and disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2001;929:166–175
  130. Locke S, Angevine JB, Yakovlev PI. Limbic nuclei of thalamus and connections of limbic cortex, II: thalamo-cortical projection of the lateral dorsal nucleus in man. Archives of Neurology. 1961;4:355–366
  131. Lombardi WJ, Gross RE, Trepanier LL, Lang AE, Lozano AM, Saint-Cyr JA. Relationship of lesion location to cognitive outcome following microelectrode-guided pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease: support for the existence of cognitive circuits in the human pallidum. Brain. 2000;123:746–758
  132. Luria AR. Higher Cortical Functions in Man. Translated from the Russian by Basil Haigh New York: Basic Books; 1966;
  133. MacLean PD. Cerebral evolution and emotional processes: new findings on the striatal complex. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1972;193:137–149
  134. Maeder-Ingvar M, van Melle G, Bogousslavsky J. Pure monoparesis: a particular stroke subgroup?. Archives of Neurology. 2005;62:1221–1224
  135. Malm J, Kristensen B, Karlsson T, Carlberg B, Fagerlund M, Olsson T. Cognitive impairment in young adults with infratentorial infarcts. Neurology. 1998;51:433–440
  136. Margulies DS, Kelly AM, Uddin LQ, Biswal BB, Castellanos FX, Milham MP. Mapping the functional connectivity of anterior cingulate cortex. NeuroImage. 2007;37:579–588
  137. Martin JJ. Degenerative diseases of the human thalamus. In:  Steriade M,  Jones EG,  McCormick DA editor. Thalamus. Experimental and Clinical Aspects. vol. II:New York: Elsevier; 1997;p. 653–687
  138. Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Voon V, et al. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron. 2005;45:651–660
  139. McHaffie JG, Stanford TR, Stein BE, Coizet V, Redgrave P. Subcortical loops through the basal ganglia. Trends in Neuroscience. 2005;28:401–407
  140. Medina JF, Mauk MD. Computer simulation of cerebellar information processing. Nature Neuroscience. 2000;1205–1211
  141. Mega MS, Cummings JL. Frontal–subcortical circuits and neuropsychiatric disorders. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 1994;6:358–370
  142. Mesulam M-M. A cortical network for directed attention and unilateral neglect. Annals of Neurology. 1981;10:309–325
  143. Mesulam M-M. Patterns in behavioral neuroanatomy: association areas, the limbic system, and hemispheric specialization. In:  Mesulam M-M editors. Principles of Behavioral Neurology. Contemporary Neurology Series. Philadelphia: FA Davis; 1988;
  144. Mesulam M-M. Large-scale neurocognitive networks and distributed processing for attention, language, and memory. Annals of Neurology. 1990;28:597–613
  145. Mesulam M-M, Pandya DN. The projections of the medial geniculate complex within the sylvian fissure of the rhesus monkey. Brain Research. 1973;60:315–333
  146. Miall RC, Reckess GZ. The cerebellum and the timing of coordinated eye and hand tracking. Brain and Cognition. 2002;48:212–226
  147. Miall RC, Weir DJ, Wolpert DM, Stein JF. Is the Cerebellum a Smith Predictor?. Journal of Motor Behavior. 1993;25:203–216
  148. Middleton FA, Strick PL. Anatomical evidence for cerebellar and basal ganglia involvement in higher cognitive function. Science. 1994;266:458–461
  149. Middleton FA, Strick PL. Cerebellar output channels. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;41:61–82
  150. Molinari M, Filippini V, Leggio MG. Neuronal plasticity of interrelated cerebellar and cortical networks. Neuroscience. 2002;111:863–870
  151. Mufson EJ, Mesulam M-M. Thalamic connections of the insula in the rhesus monkey and comments on the paralimbic connectivity of the medial pulvinar nucleus. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1984;227:109–120
  152. Murthy JM. Ataxic hemiparesis–ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus: yet another site of lesion. Stroke. 1988;19:122
  153. Muslimovic D, Post B, Speelman JD, Schmand B. Motor procedural learning in Parkinson's disease. Brain. 2007;130:2887–2897
  154. Nadeau SE, Crosson B. Subcortical aphasia. Brain and Language. 1997;58:355–402[discussion: 418–23]
  155. Naeser MA, Palumbo CL, Helm-Estabrooks N, Stiassny-Eder D, Albert ML. Severe nonfluency in aphasia. Role of the medial subcallosal fasciculus and other white matter pathways in recovery of spontaneous speech. Brain. 1989;112:1–38
  156. Nasreddine ZS, Saver JL. Pain after thalamic stroke: right diencephalic predominance and clinical features in 180 patients. Neurology. 1997;48:1196–1199
  157. Nass R, Boyce L, Leventhal F, et al. Acquired aphasia in children after surgical resection of left-thalamic tumors. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2000;42:580–590
  158. Nauta WJ, Domesick VB. Afferent and efferent relationships of the basal ganglia. Ciba Foundation Symposium. 1984;107:3–29
  159. Nauta WJH. Some efferent connections of the prefrontal cortex in the monkey. In:  Waren JM,  Akert K editor. The Frontal Granular Cortex and Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1964;p. 397–409
  160. Naville F. Etudes sur les complications et les sequelles mentales de l'encephalite epidemique. La bradyphrenie. Encephale, 17: 369–375, 423–436, 1922.
  161. Neau JP, Arroyo-Anllo E, Bonnaud V, Ingrand P, Gil R. Neuropsychological disturbances in cerebellar infarcts. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 2000;102:363–370
  162. Neau JP, Bogousslavsky J. The syndrome of posterior choroidal artery territory infarction. Annals of Neurology. 1996;39:779–788
  163. Ng YS, Stein J, Ning M, Black-Schaffer RM. Comparison of clinical characteristics and functional outcomes of ischemic stroke in different vascular territories. Stroke. 2007;38:2309–2314
  164. Northcutt RG, Kaas JH. The emergence and evolution of mammalian neocortex. Trends in Neuroscience. 1995;18:373–379
  165. Ojemann GA, Fedio P, Van Buren JM. Anomia from pulvinar and subcortical parietal stimulation. Brain. 1968;91:99–116
  166. Ojemann GA, Ward AA. Speech representation in ventrolateral thalamus. Brain. 1971;94:669–680
  167. Olszewski J. The Thalamus of the Macaca mulatta: An atlas for use with the stereotaxic instrument. Basel, New York: S. Karger; 1952;
  168. Owen AM, James M, Leigh PN, et al. Fronto-striatal cognitive deficits at different stages of Parkinson's disease. Brain. 1992;115:1727–1751
  169. Pandya DN, Kuypers HG. Cortico–cortical connections in the rhesus monkey. Brain Research. 1969;13:13–36
  170. Pandya DN, Rosene DL, Doolittle AM. Corticothalamic connections of auditory-related areas of the temporal lobe in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1994;345:447–471
  171. Pandya DN, Seltzer B. Intrinsic connections and architectonics of posterior parietal cortex in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1982;204:196–210
  172. Parvizi J, Anderson SW, Martin CO, Damasio H, Damasio AR. Pathological laughter and crying: a link to the cerebellum. Brain. 2001;124:1708–1719
  173. Parvizi J, Joseph J, Press DZ, Schmahmann JD. Pathological laughter and crying in patients with multiple system atrophy-cerebellar type. Movement Disorders. 2007;22:798–803
  174. Peoples LL, Kravitz AV, Guillem K. The role of accumbal hypoactivity in cocaine addiction. ScientificWorld Journal. 2007;7:22–45
  175. Pollack IF. Posterior fossa syndrome. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;41:411–432
  176. Pritchard TC, Hamilton RB, Morse JR, Norgren R. Projections of thalamic gustatory and lingual areas in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1986;244:213–228
  177. Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL. A default mode of brain function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2001;98:676–682
  178. Ramnani N, Behrens TE, Johansen-Berg H, et al. The evolution of prefrontal inputs to the cortico-pontine system: diffusion imaging evidence from Macaque monkeys and humans. Cerebral Cortex. 2006;16:811–818
  179. Ramnani N. The primate cortico-cerebellar system: anatomy and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2006;7:511–522
  180. Rao SM. White matter disease and dementia. Brain and Cognition. 1996;31:250–268
  181. Reilly M, Connolly S, Stack J, Martin EA, Hutchinson M. Bilateral paramedian thalamic infarction: a distinct but poorly recognized stroke syndrome. Quarterly Journal of Medicine. 1992;82:63–70
  182. Remijnse PL, Nielen MM, van Balkom AJ, et al. Reduced orbitofrontal–striatal activity on a reversal learning task in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2006;63:1225–1236
  183. Riva D, Giorgi C. The cerebellum contributes to higher function during development: evidence from a series of children surgically treated for posterior fossa tumors. Brain. 2000;123:1051–1061
  184. Robbins TW, Everitt BJ. Limbic–striatal memory systems and drug addiction. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 2002;78:625–636
  185. Robinson DL, Cowie RJ. The primate pulvinar: Structural, functional and behavioral components of visual salience. In:  Steriade M,  Jones EG,  McCormick DA editor. Thalamus. Experimental and Clinical Aspects. vol. II:New York: Elsevier; 1997;p. 53–92
  186. Robinson DL. Functional contributions of the primate pulvinar. Progress in Brain Research. 1993;95:371–380
  187. Romanski LM, Giguere M, Bates JF, Goldman-Rakic PS. Topographic organization of medial pulvinar connections with the prefrontal cortex in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1997;379:313–332
  188. Russchen FT, Amaral DG, Price JL. The afferent input to the magnocellular division of the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1987;256:175–210
  189. Schell GR, Strick PL. The origin of thalamic inputs to the arcuate premotor and supplementary motor areas. The Journal of Neuroscience. 1984;4:539–560
  190. Schmahmann JD. Hemi-inattention from Right Hemisphere Subcortical Infarction. Boston: Boston Society of Neurology and Psychiatry; 1984;
  191. Schmahmann JD. An emerging concept: the cerebellar contribution to higher function. Archives of Neurology. 1991;48:1178–1187
  192. Schmahmann JD. From movement to thought: anatomic substrates of the cerebellar contribution to cognitive processing. Human Brain Mapping. 1996;4:174–198
  193.  Schmahmann JDThe Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;vol. 47:San Diego, Academic Press
  194. Schmahmann JD. The role of the cerebellum in affect and psychosis. Journal of Neurolinguistics. 2000;13:189–214
  195. Schmahmann JD. Vascular syndromes of the thalamus. Stroke. 2003;34:2264–2278
  196. Schmahmann JD. Disorders of the cerebellum: ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 2004;16:367–378
  197. Schmahmann JD. The primary motor cerebellum is in the anterior lobe but not the posterior lobe. Evidence from stroke patients. Neurology. 2007;68:A357
  198. Schmahmann JD, Leifer D. Parietal pseudothalamic pain syndrome. Clinical features and anatomical correlates. Archives of Neurology. 1992;49:1032–1037
  199. Schmahmann JD, MacMore J, Gardner RC, Vangel M. Evaluating ataxia with a modified version of the international cooperative ataxia rating scale (MICARS) and development and validation of a brief ataxia rating scale (BARS). Neurology. 2007;68:
  200. Schmahmann JD, Pandya DN. Anatomical investigation of thalamic projections to the posterior parietal cortices in rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1990;295:299–326
  201. Schmahmann JD, Pandya DN. Anatomic organization of the basilar pontine projections from prefrontal cortices in rhesus monkey. Journal of Neuroscience. 1997;17:438–458
  202. Schmahmann JD, Pandya DN. The cerebrocerebellar system. The Cerebellum and Cognition. International Review of Neurobiology. 1997;41:31–60San Diego, Academic Press
  203. Schmahmann JD, Pandya DN. Fiber Pathways of the Brain. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006;
  204. Schmahmann JD, Pandya DN, Wang R, et al. Association fibre pathways of the brain: parallel observations from diffusion spectrum imaging and autoradiography. Brain. 2007;130:630–653
  205. Schmahmann JD, Rosene DL, Pandya DN. Motor projections to the basis pontis in rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 2004;478:248–268
  206. Schmahmann JD, Sherman JC. The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Brain. 1998;121:561–579
  207. Schmahmann JD, Weilburg JB, Sherman JC. The neuropsychiatry of the cerebellum – insights from the clinic. The Cerebellum. 2007;6:254–267
  208. In:  Schoenbaum G,  Gottfried J,  Murray EA,  Ramus S editor. Linking Affect to Action: Critical Contributions of the Obitofrontal Cortex. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. vol. 1121:2007;
  209. Scott R, Gregory R, Hines N, et al. Neuropsychological, neurological and functional outcome following pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease. A consecutive series of eight simultaneous bilateral and twelve unilateral procedures. Brain. 1998;121:659–675
  210. Scott RB, Stoodley CJ, Anslow P, et al. Lateralized cognitive deficits in children following cerebellar lesions. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2001;43:685–691
  211. Selemon LD, Goldman-Rakic PS. Topographic intermingling of striatonigral and striatopallidal neurons in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1990;297:359–376
  212. Shatz CJ, Rakic P. The genesis of efferent connections from the visual cortex of the fetal rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1981;196:287–307
  213. Shelton FN, Reding MJ. Effect of lesion location on upper limb motor recovery after stroke. Stroke. 2001;32:107–112
  214. Sidibe M, Pare JF, Smith Y. Nigral and pallidal inputs to functionally segregated thalamostriatal neurons in the centromedian/parafascicular intralaminar nuclear complex in monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 2002;447:286–299
  215. Siwek DF, Pandya DN. Prefrontal projections to the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1991;312:509–524
  216. Smith JG, McDowall J. When artificial grammar acquisition in Parkinson's disease is impaired: the case of learning via trial-by-trial feedback. Brain Research. 2006;1067:216–228
  217. Snider RS. Recent contributions to the anatomy and physiology of the cerebellum. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry. 1950;64:196–219
  218. Snider RS, Eldred E. Cerebrocerebellar relationships in the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology. 1952;15:27–40
  219. Solomon DH, Barohn RJ, Bazan C, Grissom J. The thalamic ataxia syndrome. Neurology. 1994;44:810–814
  220. Spiegel EA, Wycis HT, Orchinik C, Freed H. Thalamic chronotaraxis. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1956;113:97–105
  221. Steinlin M, Styger M, Boltshauser E. Cognitive impairments in patients with congenital nonprogressive cerebellar ataxia. Neurology. 1999;53:966–973
  222. Strick PL. Anatomical analysis of ventrolateral thalamic input to primate motor cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology. 1976;39:1020–1031
  223. Stuss DT, Benson DF. Neuropsychological studies of the frontal lobes. Psychological Bulletin. 1984;95:3–28
  224. Takahashi N, Kawamura M, Araki S. Isolated hand palsy due to cortical infarction: localization of the motor hand area. Neurology. 2002;58:1412–1414
  225. Tatemichi TK, Desmond DW, Prohovnik I, et al. Confusion and memory loss from capsular genu infarction: a thalamocortical disconnection syndrome?. Neurology. 1992;42:1966–1979
  226. Tavano A, Grasso R, Gagliardi C, et al. Disorders of cognitive and affective development in cerebellar malformations. Brain. 2007;130:2646–2660
  227. Tobias TJ. Afferents to prefrontal cortex from the thalamic mediodorsal nucleus in the rhesus monkey. Brain Research. 1975;83:191–212
  228. Trépanier LL, Saint-Cyr JA, Lozano AM, Lang AE. Neuropsychological consequences of posteroventral pallidotomy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1998;51:207–215
  229. Trouillas P, Takayanagi T, Hallett M, et al. International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale for pharmacological assessment of the cerebellar syndrome. The Ataxia Neuropharmacology Committee of the World Federation of Neurology. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 1997;145:205–211
  230. Tuch DS, Reese TG, Wiegell MR, et al. High angular resolution diffusion imaging reveals intravoxel white matter fiber heterogeneity. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2002;4:577–582
  231. Unger-leider LG, Mishkin M. Two cortical visual systems. In:  Ingle DJ,  Goodale MA,  Mansfield RJW editor. Analysis of Visual Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press; 1982;p. 549–586
  232. van de Ven VG, Formisano E, Prvulovic D, Roeder CH, Linden DE. Functional connectivity as revealed by spatial independent component analysis of fMRI measurements during rest. Human Brain Mapping. 2004;22:165–178
  233. Vogt BA, Pandya DN, Rosene DL. Cingulate cortex of the rhesus monkey, I: cytoarchitecture and thalamic afferents. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1987;262:256–270
  234. Von Cramon DY, Hebel N, Schuri U. A contribution to the anatomical basis of thalamic amnesia. Brain. 1985;108:993–1008
  235. Voogd J, Glickstein M. The anatomy of the cerebellum. Trends in Neurosciences. 1998;21:370–375
  236. Warren JD, Thompson PD, Thompson PD. Diencephalic amnesia and apraxia after left thalamic infarction. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 2000;68:248
  237. Watson RT, Heilman KM. Thalamic neglect. Neurology. 1979;29:690–694
  238. Weber JT, Yin TCT. Subcortical projections of the inferior parietal cortex (area 7) in the stump-tailed monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1984;224:206–230
  239. Wedeen VJ, David TL, Weiskoff RM, Tootell R, Rosen BR, Belliveau JW. White matter connectivity explored by MRI. Human Brain Mapping. 1995;36:
  240. Wedeen VJ, Hagmann P, Tseng WY, Reese TG, Weisskoff RM. Mapping complex tissue architecture with diffusion spectrum magnetic resonance imaging. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2005;54:1377–1386
  241. Wedeen VJ, Wang RP, Schmahmann JD, et al. Diffusion spectrum magnetic resonance imaging (DSI) tractography of fiber crossings. NeuroImage. 2008;41:1267–1277
  242. Whiting BA, Barton RA. The evolution of the cortico–cerebellar complex in primates: anatomical connections predict patterns of correlated evolution. Journal of Human Evolution. 2003;44:3–10
  243. Wiesendanger R, Wiesendanger M, Rüegg DG. An anatomical investigation of the corticopontine projection in the primate (Macaca fascicularis and Saimiri sciureus) – II. The projection from frontal and parietal association areas. Neuroscience. 1979;4:747–765
  244. Williams-Gray CH, Foltynie T, Brayne CE, Robbins TW, Barker RA. Evolution of cognitive dysfunction in an incident Parkinson's disease cohort. Brain. 2007;130:1787–1798
  245. Willis WD. Nociceptive functions of thalamic neurons. In:  Steriade M,  Jones EG,  McCormick DA editor. Thalamus. Experimental and Clinical Aspects. vol. II:New York: Elsevier; 1997;p. 373–424
  246. Wisoff JH, Epstein FJ. Pseudobulbar palsy after posterior fossa operation in children. Neurosurgery. 1984;15:707–709
  247. Yakovlev PI, Locke S, Koskoff DY, Patton RA. Limbic nuclei of thalamus and connections of limbic cortex, I: organization of projections of the anterior group of nuclei and of the midline thalamic nuclei of the thalamus to the anterior cingulate gyrus and hippocampal rudiment in the monkey. Archives of Neurology. 1960;3:620–641
  248. Yakovlev PI, Locke S. Limbic nuclei of thalamus and connections of limbic cortex, III: corticocortical connections of the anterior cingulated gyrus, the cingulum, and the subcallosal bundle in monkey. Archives of Neurology. 1961;5:34–70
  249. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Corticothalamic connections of the posterior parietal cortex in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1985;237:408–426
  250. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Corticothalamic connections of paralimbic regions in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1988;269:130–146
  251. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Thalamic connections of the cortex of the superior temporal sulcus in the rhesus monkey. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1989;282:80–97
  252. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Striatal connections of the parietal association cortices in rhesus monkeys. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1993;332:175–197
  253. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Laminar origin of striatal and thalamic projections of the prefrontal cortex in rhesus monkeys. Experimental Brain Research. 1994;99:383–398
  254. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Corticothalamic connections of extrastriate visual areas in rhesus monkeys. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1997;378:562–585
  255. Yeterian EH, Pandya DN. Corticostriatal connections of the superior temporal region in rhesus monkeys. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 1998;399:384–402
  256. Ziegler DK, Kaufman A, Marshall HE. Abrupt memory loss associated with thalamic tumor. Archives of Neurology. 1977;34:545–548

PII: S0010-9452(08)00119-6

doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2008.04.004

Cortex
Volume 44, Issue 8 , Pages 1037-1066 , September 2008